UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  PUBLICATIONS. 


COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


A  NEW  WINE-COOLING  MACHINE 


By  FREDERIC  T.  BIOLETTI. 


BULLETIN    No.    174. 

(Berkeley,  January  4,  1906.) 


SACRAMENTO: 
w.  w.  shannon,     :     :     :     :     superintendent  state  printing. 

1906. 


BENJAMIN  IDE  WHEELER,  Ph.D.,  LL-D.,  President  of  the  University. 

EXPERIMENT  STATION  STAFF. 

E.  W.  HTLGARD,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  Director  and  Chemist.    (Absent  on  leave.) 

E.  J.  WICKSON,  M.A.,  Acting  Director  and  Horticulturist. 

W.  A.  SETCHELL,  Ph.D..  Botanist. 

ELWOOD  MEAD,  M.S.,  C.E-,  Irrigation  Engineer. 

C.  W.  WOODWORTH,  M.$.,  Entomologist. 

R.  H.  LOUGHRIDGE,  Ph.D.,  Agricult?tral  Geologist  and  Soil  Physicist.     (Soils  and  Alkali.) 

M.  E.  JAFFA,  M.S.,  Assistant  Chemist.     (Foods,  Ntitrition.) 

G.  W.  SHAW,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  Assistant  Chemist.     (Cereals,  Oils,  Beet-Sugar.) 

GEORGE  E   COLBY,  M.S.,  Assistant  Chemist.     (Fruits,  Waters,  Insecticides.) 

A.  R.  WARD,  B.S.A.,  D.V.M.,  Veterinarian  and  Bacteriologist. 

E.  W.  MAJOR,  B.Agr.,  Animal  Industry. 
RALPH  E.  SMITH,  B.S.,  Plant  Pathologist. 

E-  H.  TWIGHT,  B.Sc,  Diplome  E.A.M.,  Viticulturist. 

F.  T.  BIOLETTI,  M.S.,  Viticulturist. 

WARREN  T.  CLARKE,  B.S.,  Assistant  Entomologist  and  Asst.  Supt.  Farmers'  Institutes. 

H.  M.  HALL,  M.S  ,  Assistant  Botanist. 

GEORGE  ROBERTS,  M.S.,  Assistant  Chemist,  in  charge  of  Fertilizer  Control. 

C.  M.  HARING,  D.V.  M.,  Assistant  Veterinarian  and  Bacteriologist. 
ALBERT  M.  WEST,  B.S.,  Assistant  Plant  Pathologist. 

E.  H.  SMITH,  M.S.,  Assistant  Plant  Pathologist. 

G.  R.  STEWART,  Student  Assistant  in  Station  Laboratory. 
ALICE  R.  THOMPSON,  B.S.,  Assistant  in  Soil  laboratory. 

D.  L.  BUNNELL,  Clerk  to  the  Director. 


R.  E.  MANSELL,  Foreman  of  Central  Station  Grounds.  :  . 

JOHN  TUOHY,  Patron,     ) 

r   Tulare  Substation,  Tulare. 
J.  FORRER,  Foreman,        ) 

J.  W.  MILLS,  Pomona,  in  charge  Cooperation  Experiments  in  Southern  California. 

J.  W.  ROPER,  Patron,  ) 

v    University  Forestry  Station,  Chico. 
HENRY  WIGHTMAN,  In  charge,       ) 

ROY  JONES,  Patron,  ) 

y    University  Forestry  Station,  Santa  Monica. 
J.  H.  BARBER,   Foreman,  ) 

VINCENT  J.  HUNTLEY,  Foreman  of  Calif ornia  Poultry  Experiment  Station,  Petaluma. 


The  Station  publications  (Reports  and  Bulletins),  so  long  as  avail- 
able, will  be  sent  to  any  citizen  of  the  State  on  application. 


A  NEW  WINE-COOLING  MACHINE. 


In  planning  for  the  series  of  wine-making  experiments  which  will 
be  detailed  in  Bulletin  No.  177,  it  was  necessary  to  devise  a  cooling 
machine,  both  for  the  reduction  of  temperature  of  the  heated  must  and 
for  the  control  of  the  temperature  of  fermentation.  While  the  machine 
made  was  intended  only  for  a  temporary  and  special  purpose,  it  proved 
so  efficient,  and  is  at  the  same  time  so  simple  in  construction  and  of  such 
moderate  cost,  that  it  will  be  found  useful  in  nearly  all  wineries  where 
any  attempt  is  made  to  keep  the  temperature  of  the  fermenting  wine 
within  the  most  favorable  limits.  For  this  reason  the  construction  and 
work  of  the  cooler  are  described  here,  together  with  some  of  the  pre- 
liminary tests  made  with  small  models  before  the  full-sized  machine 
was  constructed. 

Description  of  the  Cooler. — The  machine  consists  essentially  of  a 
copper  tube  220  feet  long  and  1^  inches  in  diameter,  through  which  the 
wine  is  pumped  and  which  is  inclosed  in  a  canvas  irrigating  hose  4 
inches  in  diameter,  through  which  cold  water  runs  in  a  direction  oppo- 
site to  that  of  the  wine.  The  whole  is  supported  on  a  wooden  stand, 
as  shown  in  the  figure  on  the  cover  of  this  bulletin  where  the  cooler  is 
shown  in  operation. 

Capacity  of  the  Cooler. — The  capacity  (that  is  to  say,  the  amount  of 
wine  which  can  be  cooled  in  a  given  time)  of  any  cooler  of  this  type 
will  depend  on  the  number  of  degrees  which  the  wine  is  lowered  and  on 
the  difference  of  temperature  between  the  wine  and  the  water.  The 
tests  shown  in  Table  I  indicate  that  1,000  gallons  of  must  at  140°  F. 
can  be  lowered  50°  F.  (viz.,  to  90°  F.)  per  hour  by  the  use  of  1,100  gallons 
of  water  at  71.5°  F.  (see  test  8).  If  the  hot  must  has  a  temperature  of 
125°  F.,  the  same  amount  will  be  lowered  by  the  same  amount  of  water  of 
the  same  temperature  41°  F.,  or  to  84°  F.  (see  test  9).  As  fermenting  wine 
never  attains  such  high  temperatures  as  these,  test  10  is  interesting  as 
indicating  what  can  be  expected  from  the  machine  in  controlling  the 
temperature  of  a  fermenting  vat.  This  test  shows  that  1,000  gallons  of 
fermenting  wine  can  be  lowered  from  95°  F.  to  78°  F.  (viz.,  17°  F.)  in 
one  hour  by  the  use  of  850  gallons  of  water  at  71.5°  F. 

Comparison  with  Other  Coolers. — In  order  to  compare  the  work  of 
this  cooler  with  coolers  of  other  forms,  a  factor  was  calculated  repre- 
senting the  number  of  gallons  of  wine  cooled  per  hour  1°  F.  per  unit 


4  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA— EXPERIMENT    STATION. 

of  surface,  and  for  one  degree  of  reduction  of  temperature  of  the  wine, 

and  for  one  degree  of  difference  between  the  temperature  of  the  hot 

wine  and  of  the  cool  water. 

Given: 

R  =  Number  of  gallons  of  wine  cooled  per  hour. 

F  =  Number  of  degrees  Fahrenheit  wine  is  lowered. 

D  =  Number  of  degrees  of  difference  between  the  temperature  of  the  hot  wine 

and  of  the  cool  water. 
S  =  Number  of  square  feet  of  surface  of  cooling  tube. 
K  =  Number  of  gallons  per  hour  cooled  1°  F.  per  square  foot  of  8  and  per 

each  degree  of  F  and  each  degree  of  D. 

Then, 

RXF 


K  = 


DXS 


This  factor  K  will  doubtless  vary  considerably  according  to  whether 
we  are  dealing  with  liquids  very  near  together  or  very  far  apart  in 
temperature,  or  if  we  pass  very  small  or  very  large  volumes  of  wine 
through  the  machine;  but  within  the  limits  of  practice,  it  was  found 
very  constant  and  gives  a  very  simple  and  accurate  measure  of  com- 
parison between  different  machines  and  different  ways  of  using  the 
same  machine.  For  purposes  of  comparison,  observations  were  made 
on  two  other  wine-cooling  devices.  One  of  these  devices  consisted  of  a 
length  of  iron  water-pipe  placed  in  an  irrigation  ditch,  and  was  used 
for  cooling  sherry  in  taking  it  from  the  heating  house  to  the  storage 
cellar.  The  piping  consisted  of  400  feet  of  1-inch  and  200  feet  of  1-J-inch 
iron  water-pipe,  through  which  the  wine  was  pumped.  The  test  of  this 
device  is  shown  under  No.  11  in  Table  I. 

TABLE  I. 

Tests  of  Cooling  Machines. 


o 

CO 

1 

Water. 

Wine. 

R 

F 

D 

K 

s 

Rate. 

1st 
Temp. 

2d 
Temp. 

Rate. 

1st 
Temp. 

2d 
Temp. 

1 

) 

\ 

450 

71.0 

91.0 

550 

99.0 

79.0 

550 

20.0 

28.0 

5.46 

72 

2 

>End  closed... 

< 

750 

71.0 

82.0 

550 

94.0 

76.0 

550 

18.0 

23.0 

5.98 

72 

3 

J 

I 

750 

71.0 

81.0 

550 

92.0 

75.0 

550 

17.0 

21.0 

6.18 

72 

4 

End      op e  n  ; 
i-     much     leak- 

r 

900 

68.0 

109.0 

900 

117.0 

91.0 

900 

26.0 

49.0 

5.27 

72 

5 

i 

< 
i 

900 

68.0 

98.0 

1,000 

102.0 

84.0 

1,000 

18.0 

34.0 

7.35 

72 

6 

900 

68.0 

92.0 

1)00 

95.0 

82.0 

900 

13.0 

27.0 

6.02 

72 

7 

age, 

i 

900 

68.0 

900 

82.0 

77.0 

900 

5.0 

14.0 

4.46 

72 

8 

I  End  open  ;  lit- 
[      tie  leakage... 

r 

1,100 

71.5 

114.0 

1,000 

139.0 

89.5 

1,000 

49.5 

67.5 

10.19 

72 

9 

<! 

1,100 

71.5 

106.5 

1,000 

127.0 

86.0 

1,000 

41.0 

55.5 

10.26 

72 

10 

1 

850 

71.5 

88.0 

1,000 
1,500 

97.0 

79.5 

1,000 

17.5 

25.5 

9.53 

72 

11 

Sherry  C. 

82.0 

120.0 

93.5 

1,000 

26.5 

38.0 

5.68 

184 

1? 

TJ.  C 

500 

72.0 

2,400 

101.0 

88.0 

2,400 

13.0 

29.0 

5.75 

187 

R  =  Number  of  gallons  cooled  per  hour. 

F  =  Number  of  degrees  F.  wine  is  lowered. 

D  =  Difference  between  temperature  of  hot  wine  and  cool  water. 

K  =  Gallons  per  hour  cooled  one  degree  per  square  foot,  and  degree,  etc. 

S  =  Number  of  square  feet  of  surface  of  cooling  tube. 


A   NEW   WINE-COOLING   MACHINE. 


The  other  device  consisted  of  an  ordinary  beer  wort  cooler,  but  the 
wine  instead  of  flowing  over  the  outside  was  pumped  through  the  tube 
and  cooled  by  allowing  the  water  to  drip  over  the  outside  of  the  battery 
of  tubes.  The  cooling  was  made  more  complete  by  the  use  of  two  pro- 
peller fans,  which  caused  a  strong  current  of  air  to  pass  over  the  surface 
of  the  tubes  and  cool  the  water  by  evaporation.  The  test  of  this 
machine  is  shown  under  No.  12  in  Table  I,  where  it  is  indicated  by  the 
letters  U.  C,  meaning  "  University  Cooler,"  as  it  is  identical  in  principle 
with  the  cooling  machine  invented  at  the  Berkeley  Experiment  Station, 
and  described  in  Bulletin  No.  117.     (See  Figs.  1  and  2.)     The  first  of 


COOLED  WINE 


BLOWER 


HOT  WINE 


FIG.  1.    University  air-blast  cooler. 


these  machines  is  useful  for  the  purpose  intended,  and  requires  little 
attention,  but  would  be  of  little  use  in  controlling  the  temperature  of 
fermentation,  owing  to  the  high  temperature  of  the  water  in  the  irrigat- 
ing ditch  during  the  vintage.  Moreover,  by  comparing  the  factor  K  in 
test  11  writh  that  of  test  9,  it  will  be  seen  that  for  unity  of  surface  it  is 
little  more  than  half  as  efficient  as  the  machine  used  in  our  experiments, 
notwithstanding  the  fact  that  it  was  supplied  with  a  practically  unlim- 
ited amount  of  cooling  water. 

The  efficiency  of  the  U.  C.  machine,  as  indicated  by  the  factor  K  of 
test  12,  is  little  larger.  The  principal  merit  of  this  machine  is  that  it 
uses  little  water.  The  present  machine  (on  front  page)  uses  between 
four  and  five  times  as  much  for  the  same  effect.  This  would  be  a  disad- 
vantage where  water  is  scarce,  and  it  was  for  such  cases  that  the  U.  C. 


D  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

machine  was  recommended  in  Bulletin  No.  117.  Where  the  cost  of 
water  is  merely  nominal  for  the  amounts  necessary,  as  it  is  in  most 
California  wineries,  the  possibility  of  cooling  nearly  twice  as  much  wine 
in  a  given  time  with  a  machine  of  the  same  size  of  our  present  construc- 
tion is  a  great  advantage. 

Several  cellars  in  California  have  installed  a  cooling  device  consisting 
of  a  system  of  iron  water-pipes  arranged  in  various  ways  in  the  interior 
of  the  fermenting  vat  itself.  The  pipes  are  usually  arranged  around 
the  cask  at  a  few  inches  from  the  staves,  but  are  sometimes  placed  in  an 
upright  series  in  the  middle  of  the  vat  extending  from  one  side  to  tlm 


FIG.  2.    Another  form  of  air-blast  cooler. 


opposite,  and  from  the  bottom  to  the  top.  The  wine  is  kept  cool  by 
running  water  through  this  system  of  pipes  whenever  the  temperature 
rises  too  high.  With  such  a  device  it  is  possible  to  control  the  temper- 
ature, but  in  order  to  keep  the  temperature  approximately  even  in  all 
parts  of  the  vat,  constant  stirring  during  the  tumultuous  fermentation 
is  necessary.  This  is  troublesome,  and  with  very  large  vats  impossible. 
Instead  of  stirring,  the  temperature  may  be  equalized  by  pumping  the 
wine  over  from  the  bottom  of  the  vat  to  the  top  of  the  pomace;  but  if 
this  method  is  used,  more  pumping  is  needed  than  is  necessary  for  our 
machine.  The  amount  of  water  necessary  to  obtain  the  same  effect  is 
about  twice  that  used  in  our  cooler.  The  principal  defect  in  this  device, 
however,  is  the  difficulty  of  removing  the  pomace  and  the  cleaning  of 
the  vat,  owing  to  the  presence  of  the  network  of  pipes  and  supports. 


A   NEW    WINE-COOLING    MACHINE.  / 

It  is  also  expensive  to  install,  as  a  series  of  cooling  pipes  must  be  placed 
in  every  vat.  Moreover,  although  it  has  been  shown  that  a  limited 
exposure  of  the  wine  to  contact  with  iron  has  no  bad  effects,  it  is  prob- 
able that  the  continued  presence  of  so  much  iron  piping  in  the  wine  for 
four  or  five  days  would  have  an  injurious  effect. 

Copper  or  Iron  Pipe. — Though  the  machine  is  by  no  means  expensive, 
it  could  be  made  for  little  more  than  half  the  cost  if  it  were  possible  to 
use  iron  pipe  instead  of  copper  tubing.  Iron  being  a  poorer  conductor 
of  heat  than  copper,  an  iron  pipe  would  be  less  efficient  than  a  copper 
tube,  but  tests  with  a  small   model  of  the  cooler  indicate  that  there 


FIG.  3.    Iron  tank  used  for  transportation  of  wine  in  Algeria. 

would  be  a  loss  of  only  about  10  per  cent  in  efficiency,  which  would  not 
counterbalance  the  difference  of  cost.  The  acids  of  the  wine  act  more 
energetically  on  iron  than  on  copper,  but  the  time  during  which  the 
wine  is  in  contact  with  the  metal  is  so  short  that  this  need  not  be  taken 
into  account.  To  test  this,  a  piece  of  ordinary  black  iron  water-pipe 
was  immersed  in  red  wine  and  left  there  sufficiently  long  to  make  the 
time  of  contact  one*  hundred  times  what  would  occur  in  a  single  cool- 
ing of  the  wine.  The  wine  was  then  heated  to  100°  F.  and  left  again  in 
contact  for  twenty  times  the  length  of  an  ordinary  cooling.  At  the  end 
of  this  time,  the  color  of  the  wine  had  not  been  affected  at  all,  either  in 
tint  or  intensity.  Twenty-four  hours  later  the  wine  was  examined 
again  by  means  of  a  Salleron  vino-colorimeter,  and  no  change  could  be 
detected.  As  iron  salts  act  very  rapidly  on  the  color  of  red  wine,  this 
may  be  taken  as  proof  that   no  ordinary  cooling  through  iron  pipes 


8  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

would  affect  the  wine  in  the  least.  Moreover,  in  most  cellars  now,  the 
must  is  pumped  from  the  crusher  to  the  vats  through  iron  pipes 
without  any  injury.  In  Algeria,  after  many  attempts  to  rind  a  suitable 
coating  for  the  inside  of  the  iron  tanks  used  in  transporting  wine  from 
outlying  wineries  to  central  storage  cellars,  it  has  been  found  best  to 
leave  them  uncoated  and  no  deleterious  effects  follow.     (See  Fig.  3.) 

Galvanized  iron  pipes,  however,  should  not  be  used,  as  the  zinc  is 
soon  corroded  by  the  wine,  and  the  zinc  salts  which  thus  get  into  the 
wine  are  poisonous  and  might  cause  the  wine  to  be  rejected  if  exported. 
We  can  not,  however,  recommend  iron  pipes  at  present  for  use  in  a 
cooling  machine,  as  we  have  not  yet  tested  them  on  a  practical  scale. 
There  is  danger  that,  owing  to  the  roughness  of  their  interior  surfaces, 
they  might  retain  the  sediment  and  choke  up.  However,  the  cooler 
described  on  page  43  of  Bulletin  No.  167  is  constructed  of  iron  pipes, 
and  is  said  to  work  satisfactorily  during  a  whole  vintage  without  any 
cleaning  except  flushing  with  hot  water. 

The  Water  Hose. — The  exterior  tube  through  which  the  water  runs 
and  the  function  of  which  is  to  keep  the  cool  water  in  contact  with  the 
tube  containing  the  hot  wine,  may  be  made  of  metal  or  any  substance 
that  will  conduct  the  water. 

For  reasons  of  economy  and  ease  of  construction  a  canvas  hose  was 
chosen.  Woven  cotton  and  linen  fire-hose  were  first  tested  and  found 
perfectly  satisfactory.  As  soon  as  the  tissues  of  the  hose  were  thor- 
oughly soaked  with  water,  the  leakage  was  reduced  to  a  simple  sweating. 
This  sweating,  as  will  be  shown  later,  is  a  distinct  advantage,  as  it  per- 
mits a  certain  amount  of  evaporation,  which  has  the  effect  of  cooling 
the  water  and  thus  increasing  its  effect  on  the  cooling  of  the  wine. 

As  woven  hose  is  very  expensive,  a  test  was  made  with  ordinary  sewn 
canvas  irrigating  hose.  In  the  preliminary  trials  it  seemed  that  all 
the  hose  of  this  kind  procurable  leaked  too  much  to  allow  any  benefit  to  be 
obtained  from  the  evaporation,  and  a  great  deal  of  water  escaped  before 
its  cooling  power  had  been  completely  utilized.  As  there  was,  however, 
an  abundance  of- water  available  at  the  cellar  where  the  experiments 
were  to  be  tried,  it  was  determined  to  use  this  kind  of  hose  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  cooler. 

Various  kinds  of  canvas  were  tried  and  their  relative  rates  of  leakage 
determined  under  conditions  as  near  those  of  practice  as  possible.  The 
amount  of  leakage  was  found  to  vary  very  much  with  different  qualities 
of  canvas.  In  general,  the  stronger  and  coarser  canvas  leaked  the 
most,  though  the  very  fine  canvas  also  leaked  more  than  the  medium 
grades.  It  is  possible  that  in  time,  after  long  use,  the  heavier  grades 
would  have  ceased  to  leak  so  copiously,  for  the  grade  which  was  adopted 
leaked  much  less  in  actual  practice  after  it  had  been  in  use  for  a   few 


A  NEW   WINE-COOLING   MACHINE.  9 

days  than  had  been  anticipated  after  the  laboratory  tests.  The  grade 
adopted  was  Neville's  No.  10.  The  grades  lighter  than  this  seemed 
hardly  strong  enough,  and  the  heavier  leaked  more. 

Even  the  No.  10  canvas  leaked  so  much  at  first  that  during  the  first 
cooling  experiments  the  exit  of  the  hose  was  kept  closed,  and  all  the 
water  used  was  forced  by  the  pressure  through  the  pores  of  the  canvas. 

When  used;  in  this  way  the  efficiency  of  the  machine  was  much  dimin- 
ished, as  is  seen  by  comparing  the  factor  K  of  tests  1,  2,  and  3  in  Table 
I  with  that  of  tests  8,  9,  and  10.  When  the  leakage  had  been  diminished 
as  much  as  possible,  the  efficiency  of  the  machine  was  nearly  doubled. 
The  reason  of  this  is,  of  course,  that  when  excessive  leakage  occurs  a 
great  part  of  the  water  escapes  before  its  cooling  capabilities  have  been 
utilized. 

The  best  method  of  diminishing  the  leakage  was  found  to  be,  after 
setting  up  the  machine,  to  close  the  exit  of  the  hose  and  then  allow  the 
water  to  enter  at  full  pressure.  There  is  no  danger  of  bursting  the 
hose  unless  there  is  an  excessive  supply  of  water,  as  240  feet  of  4-inch 
hose  was  found  at  first  to  be  able  to  leak  750  gallons  per  hour  under  a 
pressure  of  about  40  feet,  coming  through  a  1-inch  water-pipe.  In  an 
hour  or  two  the  leakage  diminishes  considerably,  and  then,  when  the 
exit  is  opened,  it  becomes  very  little.  Each  time  the  machine  was  used, 
the  leakage  became  less,  until  after  the  third  or  fourth  day  the  leakage 
was  little  more  than  was  needed  to  keep  the  outside  of  the  hose  moist 
and  so  obtain  the  cooling  effect  of  evaporation.  Each  time  the  hose 
was  filled,  after  having  been  allowed  to  become  dry,  it  was  found  neces- 
sary to  swell  it  up  again  by  closing  the  exit  at  first.  This  required 
only  a  few  minutes,  however,  and  not  an  hour  or  two  as  when  the  hose 
was  new. 

An  improvement  on  the  design  of  the  machine  would  be  to  let  the 
hose  lie  in  a  half-round  gutter  exactly  fitting  the  hose.  This  would 
cause  most  of  the  leakage  to  be  through  the  upper  part.  In  this  way 
all  the  water  which  escaped  would  be  warm,  and  the  efficiency  of  the 
machine  would  be  increased  by  getting  rid  of  it.  In  the  machine  as 
actually  constructed  the  hose  lay  on  the  edge  of  a  straight  board,  one 
inch  thick,  the  object  being  to  expose  as  much  surface  as  possible  to  the 
evaporating  effect  of  the  dry  air.  While  the  machine  was  working,  the 
difference  of  temperature  between  the  upper  and  the  lower  surfaces  of 
the  hose  was  marked,  the  water,  as  it  was  warmed,  rising  and  flowing 
in  a  stream  overlying  the  cool  stream  of  water  below.  As  undoubtedly, 
owing  to  the  greater  pressure,  more  than  half  of  the  leakage  took  place 
on  the  lower  half  of  the  surface  of  the  hose,  a  means  of  causing  all 
the  leakage  to  be  at  the  expense  of  the  warmer  water  in  contact  with 
the  upper  surface  might  be  an  advantage. 


10 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


Cooling  Due  to  Evaporation. — In  the  preliminary  tests,  made  before 
constructing  the  machine,  it  was  found  that  more  cooling  was  obtained 
than  could  be  accounted  for  by  the  rise  of  temperature  of  the  water 
used;  that  is  to  say,  the  warm  stream  was  cooled  more  than  the 
cool  stream  was  warmed.  This  could  be  accounted  for  in  the  model 
only  by  the  cooling  due  to  evaporation  from  the  hose  as  the  water 
passed  through.  Calculations  based  on  tests  made  with  the  model 
showed  that  this  cooling  would  amount  to  a  little  more  than  0.5°  F. 
with  a  machine  of  the  size  of  the  final  cooler  when  passing  1,000  gallons 
of  wine  per  hour  under  the  atmospheric  conditions  surrounding  the 
model.  The  relative  humidity  of  the  air  when  the  tests  were  made  was 
60.  The  mean  relative  humidity  of  the  air  at  Fresno  during  the  month 
of  September  is  given  by  the  Weather  Bureau  as  42  as  an  average  of 
twelve  years,  and  as  the  cooler  is  used  principally  during  the  day  when 
the  air  is  driest,  it  was  expected  that  the  cooling  due  to  evaporation 
would  be  much  greater  in  practice  than  was  indicated  by  the  tests  of 
the  model. 

This  expectation  was  abundantly  verified  by  the  practical  tests  of  the 
large  cooler  used  at  Fresno.  The  following  table  is  calculated  from  the 
data  given  in  Table  I: 

TABLE  II. 

Comparison  of  Heat  Lost  by  the  Wine,  and  of  Heat  Gained  by  the  Water. 

Calories  Lost  Calories  Gained 

Kxperiment.  by  Wine.  by  Water. 

1 1,000  819) 

2 !_.: 1,000  833  \  End  of  hose  closed. 

3 1,000  802) 

4 1,000  1,577)    ~nA    rt.    *naa   n„a„ 

f.  1  nnn  i  cm     End    of    nose  open 

a"  IS  o39lEnd    0f    hose    °Pen; 

io  I:::::::::::::::::::;  l:Z  Hi  ]  ™ry  nme  leakage. 

In  the  first  three  experiments,  where  the  exit  end  of  the  water  hose 
was  closed,  the  cooling  by  evaporation  is  shown  by  the  table  above  to  be 
considerable,  and  corresponds  to  a  lowering  of  the  temperature  of  the 
water  3°  F.  In  the  second  three  experiments  there  is  an  apparent 
reversal  of  this  effect,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  temperature  of  the  warmed 
water  was  taken  as  it  emerged  from  the  exit.  This  did  not  give  the 
average  temperature  of  the  water,  but  something  higher,  as  the  warmer 
water  in  the  upper  part  of  the  hose  traveled  more  freely  and  reached 
the  end,  while  much  of  the  cooler  water  escaped  by  leakage  before  it 
reached  the  end.  When  the  hose  leaks  as  much  as  it  did  during  these 
experiments,  much  of  the  cooling  power  of  the  water  is  lost  and  the  use 
of  the  semi-circular  trough  suggested  above  would  be  very  effective. 

When  the  leakage  had  diminished  to  a  mere  sweating  of  the  hose,  as 
in  the  last  three  experiments,  the  cooling  effect  of  evaporation  is  again 


A  NEW   WINE-COOLING   MACHINE.  11 

'evident.  In  experiments  8  and  9  this  effect  corresponds  to  2.5°  F.  and 
2.3°  F.  respectively,  while  in  experiment  10,  where  the  water  was  pass- 
ing more  slowly,  it  is  increased  to  4.1°  F. 

In  the  first  three  tests  some  of  the  difference  shown  between  the  rise 
of  temperature  of  the  water  and  the  fall  of  temperature  of  the  wine 
may  be  due  to  the  difference  between  the  specific  heats  of  water  and  of 
half-fermented  wine.  The  latter  difference,  however,  is  too  small  to 
account  for  all  of  the  former.  In  the  last  three  experiments  this  source 
of  uncertainty  is  eliminated,  as  warm  water  was  used  instead  of  wine 
in  making  the  tests. 

Under  average  working  conditions  in  a  dry  climate  it  may  be  expected 
that  the  results  of  evaporation  from  the  canvas  hose  will  be  equivalent 
to  the  use  of  water  about  3°  F.  cooler  in  a  machine  where  this  evapora- 
tion could  not  take  place. 

Effect  of  Sunshine,  Shade,  and  Wind. — The  machine  should  be  placed 
in  such  a  position  that  the  greatest  possible  benefit  may  be  derived 
from  the  effects  of  evaporation.  This  will  be  in  a  shady  place  where 
the  canvas  hose  is  exposed  to  the  full  force  of  any  wind  that  may  be 
blowing.  It  should  not  be  inside  a  building  where  it  is  protected  from 
the  wind,  and  where  the  air  may  be  rendered  moist  by  the  vapors  given 
off  by  fermenting  wine  or  by  water  used  in  washing.  The  heat  and 
dryness  outside  promote  evaporation  from  the  hose,  and  consequently 
increase  the  efficiency  of  the  cooler  The  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  how- 
ever, should  not  strike  the  cooler,  for  in  this  case  the  radiant  heat  will 
warm  the  water  more  than  the  evaporation  cools  it.  In  a  test  with  a 
small  model  cooler  it  was  found  that  where  in  the  shade  the  water  was 
cooled  0.5°  F.  by  evaporation,  the  resultant  of  the  effects  of  radiant 
heat  and  evaporation  in  direct  sunshine  was  a  rise  of  1.25°  F. 

Relative  Positions  of  Canvas  Hose  and  Copper  Tube. — Tests  were 
made  with  a  small  model  to  determine  the  effect  of  placing  the  copper 
rube  in  different  positions  in  the  canvas  hose.     Four  tests  were  made,  as 


A— 10.0°  F.  B— 15.3°  F.  C— 15.6°  F.  D— 16.0°  F. 

FIG.  4.     Comparative  cooling, corresponding  to  different  positions  of  tube. 

indicated  in  Fig.  4.  In  A,  the  tube  was  placed  as  near  the  upper  part 
of  the  hose  as  possible;  in  B,  in  the  center;  in  C,  as  near  the  lower 
part  as  possible.  In  D,  spiral  flanges  were  soldered  to  the  tube,  with 
the  object  of  making  the  stream  of  water  circulate  around  the  tube  in  its 


12 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


passage  from  one  end  of  the  hose  to  the  other.  When  the  tube  was 
placed  near  the  upper  part  of  the  hose  the  wine  was  cooled  less  than 
two  thirds  as  much  as  when  placed  in  the  other  positions.  The  most 
effective  method  was  where  spiral  flanges  were  used,  but  the  superiority 
over  the  plain  tube  when  placed  in  position  C  was  so  little  that  it  would 
not  repay  the  extra  expense  and  trouble  involved  in  the  use  of  the 
flanges. 

The  position  C  was  adopted  in  the  construction  of  the  machine. 
This  is  the  position  the  tube  and  hose  naturally  take  when  the  hose  is 

inflated  by  the 
pressure  of  the 
water,  if  they  rest 
on  a  flat,  contin- 
uous surface.  The 
tube  is  kept  in  a 
position  which 
leaves  a  small  space 
between  it  and  the 
1  o  w  e  r  surface  of 
the  hose  by  means 
of  the  couplings 
which  are  neces- 
sary to  join  the  20- 
foot  lengths  of  cop- 
per tubing  which 
were  used  in  the 
construction  of  the 
machine.  These 
couplings      should 

FIG.  5.    Cross-section  of  cooler  showing  relative  positions  of  hose,     De  &S  Small  as  prac- 
tnhe,  support,  and  proposed  gutter,    a,  canvas  hose  ;  b,  couplings     ti/>qV,lp  A       h  n  q  p 

of  copper  tube;  c,  gutter;  d,  copper  tube;  s,  support.  c  ' 

coupling  is  too 
large  and  would  obstruct  the  passage  of  the  water  too  much.  A  very 
good  coupling  was  designed  by  Mr.  Meakin,  which  projects  only  one 
quarter  of  an  inch  from  the  tube  and  was  found  to  answer  the  purpose 
perfectly.  Fig.  5  shows  the  relative  positions  and  actual  sizes  of  hose, 
tube  and  couplings,  and  support.  The  small  space  between  the  lower 
surface  of  the  copper  tube  and  the  hose  is  an  advantage,  as  it  increases 
the  cooling  surface  in  contact  with  the  cooler  water,  which  has  a 
tendency  to  run  along  the  lowest  part. 

Support  of  Cooler. — The  cooler  should  be  placed  on  a  support  that 
raises  it  a  few  feet  from  the  ground,  both  for  convenience  of  working 
and  to  expose  it  more  perfectly  to  the  wind. 


A   NEW   WINE-COOLING   MACHINE. 


13 


In  order  to  control  the  amount  of  leakage,  and  to  prevent  more  leak- 
age in  one  part  of  the  machine  than  in  another,  some  method  must  be 
adopted  of  varying  and  equalizing  the  water  pressure  in  all  parts  of 
the  hose.  This  it  was  found  possible  to  do  in  the  machine  constructed  by 
the  means  indicated  in  Fig.  6.  The  220  feet  of  tubing  was  made  in  four 
lengths  joined  by  three  semi-circular  bends,  as  shown  in  the  figure 
referred  to.  The  support  was  built  to  give  a  fall  of  3  feet  in  the  entire 
length,  and  as  the  water  passed  from  the  upper  end  to  the  lower  the  fall 


FIG.  6.    Scheme  of  Cooling  Machine, 


W  —Entrance  of  warm  wine. 
W,=Exit  of  cooled  wine. 


E  =:Entrance  of  cool  water. 
E,=Exit  of  warmed  water. 


tended  to  restore  the  pressure  lost  by  friction  and  leakage.  The  amount 
of  pressure  was  determined  by  8  or  10  feet  of  rubber  wine  hose  attached 
to  the  lower  end  through  which  the  water  escaped.  By  raising  the  end 
of  this  piece  of  hose,  as  at  Ei,  the  pressure  could  be  increased,  and  by 
lowering  it  decreased,  to  any  required  degree.  For  the  purpose  of  swell- 
ing up  the  canvas  hose  a  maximum  pressure  was  obtained  by  screwing  a 
cap  on  the  end  of  the  hose  at  Ei.  When  the  machine  is  in  working 
order,  the  best  height  for  the  exit  Ex  is  easily  found  by  trial. 

The  wine  enters  the  lower  end  of  the  machine  at  W  and  escapes  at 
the  upper,  Wi.     This  upward  passage  of  the  wine  is  desirable,  as  it  pre- 


14  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

vents  any  interference  with  the  flow  due  to  the  gas  given  off  freely  by 
the  fermenting  wine.     The  gas  is  carried  upward  regularly  and  perfectly. 

Temperature  of  the  Water. — A  certain  amount  of  cooling  will  be 
obtained  whatever  the  temperature  of  the  water,  provided  it  is  lower 
than  that  of  the  wine,  but  the  cooler  the  water  the  more  effect  it  Will 
have.     This  is  shown  by  the  following  tests  made  with  the  model  cooler: 

TABLE  in. 

Comparison  of  the  Effects  of  Water  of  Different  Temperatures. 


Temperature  of  Water. 

1st  Temp,  of  Wine. 

2d  Temp,  of  Wine. 

Degrees  Cooled. 

65°  F. 

75 

92°  F. 
92 

82.0°  F. 
85.5 

10.0°  F. 
6.5 

Thus,  with  the  same  conditions  of  flow  and  of  temperature  of  wine 
and  water,  water  at  65°  F.  reduced  the  wine  10°  F.,  and  water  at  75°  F. 
only  6.5°  F.  In  practice  it  will  probably  be  found  that  the  necessary 
efficiency  will  be  obtained  with  this  machine  only  if  the  temperature  of 
the  water  available  is  at  least  20°  F.  lower  than  that  of  the  maximum 
temperature  which  it  is  desired  that  the  wine  shall  not  exceed.  That 
is  to  say,  if  it  is  desired  to  keep  the  fermenting  wine  below  92°  F.,  the 
water  used  must  not  exceed  72°  F.  (See  test  3,  Table  I.)  When  there 
is  a  difference  of  only  14°  F.,  for  example,  the  wine  can  be  cooled 
only  5°  F.  at  a  practical  rate.  (See  test  7,  Table  I.)  This  is  too  little 
for  practical  purposes.  It  is  very  necessary,  therefore,  that  the  water 
should  be  as  cool  as  possible.  For  this  reason  it  will  usually  be  neces- 
sary to  have  a  special  reservoir  or  water  tank  for  the  use  of  the  cooler. 

The  water  as  it  came  from  the  well  which  was  used  in  our  cooling 
experiments  had  a  temperature  of  66°  F.,  which  was  quite  low  enough 
for  efficient  cooling.  After  this  water  had  been  in  a  20,000-gallon  iron 
tank,  covered  above  but  exposed  to  the  sun  on  the  sides,  for  two  or 
three  days  its  temperature  would  often  rise  to  over  80°  F.,  which  was 
much  too  warm  for  the  purpose.  Even  during  the  vintage,  when  a 
great  deal  of  water  was  being  used  and  water  was  almost  continually 
being  pumped  into  the  tank  and  drawn  out,  it  was  usually  over  71c  F. 
when  it  reached  the  cooler. 

The  water  tank  should  be  completely  protected  from  the  direct  rays 
of  the  sun.  The  best  way  to  do  this  would  be  to  place  a  roof  over  it 
and  then  surround  it  with  a  screen  which  would  keep  off  the  sun  but 
allow  free  circulation  of  air.  If  the  sides  of  the  tank  were  covered 
with  canvas  kept  wet  by  some  automatic  sprinkling  device,  it  is 
probable  that  the  water  instead  of  becoming  warmer  in  the  tank  would 
be  cooled.  If  this  were  done,  the  tank  might  be  made  large  enough  to- 
hold  the  water  needed  for  several  days. 


A   NEW   WINE-COOLING   MACHINE. 


15 


It  would  be  possible  to  pump  directly  from  the  well  into  the  cooler, 
but  this  would  be  less  convenient,  as  it  would  necessitate  a  special 
pump  and  well  for  the  purpose  and  would  require  more  supervision. 

Temperature  of  the  Must  or  Wine. — With  water  at  a  given  temperature, 
the  hotter  the  wine  the  greater  difference  there  will  be  between  the 
temperature  of  wine  and  water,  and  therefore  the  more  efficient  the 
machine.     Tests  with  the  model  cooler  gave  the  following  ratios: 

TABLE  IV. 

Efficiency  with   Wine  of  Different  Temperatures. 


1st  Temp,  of  Wine. 

2d  Temp,  of  Wine. 

Temperature  of  Water.          Degrees  Cooled. 

100°  F. 
92 

84 

86.0°  F. 

82.0 

76.3 

66°  F. 

66 

66 

14.0°  F. 
10. 0 

7.7 

Thus,  with  all  other  conditions  the  same,  the  amount  of  cooling  was 
nearly  twice  as  much  with  wine  at  100°  F.  as  with  wine  at  84°  F.  The 
same  is  shown  to  be  the  case  with  the  large  cooler,  as  may  be  seen  by 
comparing  tests  4  and  6,  where,  the  other  conditions  being  identical, 
must  at  109°  F.  was  reduced  26°  F.,  and  must  at  92°  F.  only  13°  F. 

This  shows  that  to  obtain  the  maximum  amount  of  work  out  of  the 
machine  the  cooling  should  commence  when  the  temperature  of  the 
wine  is  very  near  the  maximum  which  it  is  to  be  allowed  to  reach.  If 
the  wine  is  to  be  allowed  to  reach  95°  F.  much  time  and  labor  is  wasted 
by  commencing  to  cool  it  when  it  has  reached  only  90°  F.,  and  still  more 
if,  as  is  sometimes  advised,  we  cool  the  must  before  it  has  commenced  to 
heat  at  all. 

Ratio  of  Volumes  of  Wine  and  Water. — The  less  wine  we  pass  through 
the  machine  per  hour  and  the  more  water,  the  greater  cooling  effect  we 
will  obtain.  If,  however,  we  pass  the  wine  too  slowly,  we  do  not  get 
enough  work  out  of  our  machine,  and  on  the  other  hand,  if  we  pass  the 
water  too  quickly,  we  lose  too  much  of  the  cooling  power  of  our  water. 
The  differences  obtained  with  the  model  cooler  with  different  ratios  of 
water  and  wine  are  shown  by  the  following  results  of  tests: 

Degrees  Lowered. 

Rate  of  water  equal  to  that  of  wine 10.0°  F. 

Rate  of  water  1|  times  that  of  wine 11.3 

Rate  of  water  2  times  that  of  wine. 13.2 

These  tests  indicate  that  with  a  machine  of  this  construction  it  would 
not  pay  to  use  more  water  than  wine,  for  while  an  equal  quantity  lowered 
the  wine  under  the  conditions  of  the  test  10°  F.,  double  this  quantitv 
lowered  it  only  3.2°  F.  more. 

With  the  large  machine  it  was  found  that  satisfactory  results  were 
obtained  when  using  a  little  less  water  than  wine.     (See  test  10,  Table  I. ) 


16 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


Rate  of  Pumping. — The  rate  at  which  the  wine  should  be  passed 
through  the  machine  to  obtain  the  maximum  efficiency  is  a  function  of 
the  particular  machine,  and  will  differ  according  to  its  size.  The 
machine  used  was  found  to  work  very  satisfactorily  when  cooling  1,000 
gallons  per  hour.     (See  tests  8,  9,  and  10,  Table  I.) 

In  order  to  calculate  the  size  of  machine  necessary  to  accomplish  a 
certain  amount  of  cooling  with  a  certain  amount  of  water  at  a  given 
temperature,  a  formula  deduced  from  that  given  on  page  3  may  be  used: 

RXF 


s  = 


DXK 


The  factor  K  will  undoubtedly  differ  according  to  the  size  of  the  machine 
and  according  to  the  diameter  of  the  copper  tubing  used,  but  unless 
these  are  very  different  from  the  machine  described  here,  it  will  be 
approximately  equal  to  9  within  the  limits  of  cooling  that  will  be  used 
in  practice.  If,  then,  we  take  K  to  be  9,  the  volume  of  wine  (R)  to  be 
cooled  per  hour  as  1,000,  and  the  number  of  degrees  (F)  which  it  is 
desired  to  cool  the  wine  as  15,  we  can  calculate  the  required  cooling 
surface  (S)  as  follows: 

S=DX1f° 

From  S  obtained  in  this  way  we  can  calculate  the  length  (L)  of  copper 
tubing  required  according  as  we  use  1^-inch,  1^-inch,  or  2-inch  tubing 
as  follows: 

L  =  S  X  3.054,  for  lj-inch  copper  tubing. 
L  =  S  X  2.545,  for  l|-inch  copper  tubing. 
L  =  S  X  1.909,  for  2-inch  copper  tubing. 

The  following  table  has  been  computed  in  this  way  for  some  of  the 
commonest  cases  that  are  likely  to  occur : 


TABLE  V. 


Length  of  Cooler  Needed  for  Various  Conditions. 


i-3 

■■a 

R=Rate. 

!     <S 

3  p 

CD    r+ 
1       C 
'       l-t 

D' 

F 

K 

S 

L=-Number  of  Feet 
Copper  Tubing. 

incli. 

H- 
inch. 

2- 
inch. 

( 

65° 

95° 

30 

15 

9 

59.3 

181 

151         114 

1,000  gallons  per  hour  .   .  . 

i 

...  \ 

I 

65 

72 

92 
95 

27 
23 

15 
15 

9 
9 

65.9 
76.4 

201 
233 

168  :       126 
194         146 

72 

92 

20 

15 

i) 

88.9 

272 

226         170 

With  the  larger  copper  tubing,  as  indicated  by  certain  tests  made,  it 
is  probable  that  the  efficiency  would  be  a  little  less,  so  that  it  would 
probably  be  necessary  to  use  a  little  more  tubing  than  is  indicated  in 
the  last  column. 


A   NEW   WINE-COOLING   MACHINE. 


17 


Specifications  for  a  Cooling  Machine. — In  order  to  give  an  idea  of  the 
cost  of  a  machine  of  this  construction,  the  following  list  of  materials  is 
given  for  a  machine  suitable  for  the  use  of  a  cellar  making  not  more 
than  300,000  gallons  of  dry  wine  during  a  vintage  of  thirty  days: 

Bill  of  Materials. 

Copper  tubing,  200  linear  feet  of  1^-inch,  @  46  cents $92  00 

Canvas  irrigating  hose  of  No.  10  canvas,  200  linear  feet,  3  inches  in  diameter,  %  5c.  10  00 

Two  brass  castings  for  the  ends  of  cooler,  @  $2.25 .  4  50 

Nine  couplings  for  copper  tube,  @  45  cents 4  05 

Three  copper  semi-circular  bends  for  tubes,  @  $2.60 7  80 

Three  galvanized  iron  bends  for  hose,  @  35  cents 1  05 

Three  pieces  of  galvanized  iron  piping  for  hose,  @  20  cents 60 

Half-round  galvanized  iron  guttering,  200  feet,  @  6  cents 12  00 

Wooden  stand 20  00 

Ten  feet  of  3-inch  rubber  hose,  with  cap _ 7  50 

$159  50 

The  following  table  shows  how  much  a  machine  of  this  size  would 
reduce  the  temperature  of  wine  at  95°  F.  and  at  92°  F.  with  water  at 
65°  F.  and  70°  F.,  when  working  at  the  rate  of  1,000  gallons  of  wine 
per  hour  and  using  an  equal  quantity  of  water: 


TABLE  VI. 

Reduction  of  Temperature  of  Wine  under  Various  Conditions. 


Rate. 

Temperature  of  Water. 

Temperature  of  Wine. 

Reduction  of 
Temperature. 

r 

1,000  gallons  per    ! 
hour. 

1 

65°  F. 
65 

70 
70 

95°  F. 
92 
95 
92 

21°  F. 
19 
18 
16 

A  machine  of  this  size  would  be  quite  sufficient,  if  used  ten  hours  per 
day  under  ordinary  conditions,  to  control  the  temperature  of  the  wine 
in  a  cellar  which  crushed  50  tons  per  day  of  red  grapes  for  dry  wine. 
By  running  the  machine  day  and  night  the  capacity  could  be  more  than 
doublejd,  which  would  be  a  sufficient  safety  factor  to  provide  for  extraor- 
dinarily hot  weather  or  the  crushing  of  more  than  the  average  amount 
during  a  part  of  the  vintage. 

There,  is  also  the  possibility  of  the  vats  filled  on  separate  days  requir- 
ing cooling  on  the  same  day,  but  a  competent  wine-maker  who  attends 
to  the  proper  starting  of  his  fermentations  can  nearly  always  avoid 
this. 

Method  of  Using  the  Cooler. — In  order  to  obtain  the  full  benefit  of  the 
cooling  machine  (that  is,  to  use  it  with  the  greatest  efficiency),  certain 
facts  must  be  kept  in  mind  and  a  plan  of  cooling  adopted  in  accordance 
with  these  facts. 

Every  gram  of  sugar  in  a  hundred  cubic  centimeters  of  must  in  fer- 
menting will  generate  enough  heat  to  raise  the  must  2.34°  F.  This 
corresponds,  very  nearly,  to  the  production  of  2.34°  F.  for  every  degree 


18 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


Balling  of  the  must.  This  heat  is  disposed  of  in  three  ways:  (1)  A 
portion  is  taken  up  by  the  must,  which  is  thus  raised  in  temperature; 
(2)  another  portion  escapes  from  the  must  by  radiation  and  conduc- 
tion; and  (3)  the  remainder  should  be  removed  by  the  cooler. 

If  we  know  how  much  heat  will  be  taken  up  in  the  first  two  ways, 
we  will  know  how  much  it  is  necessary  to  remove  by  the  third. 

To  determine  this  we  first  calculate  how  much  heat  will  be  developed 
by  the  fermentation  of  all  the  sugar  present,  and  add  this  to  the  tem- 
perature of  the  must.  This  will  give  us  the  number  of  degrees  of 
temperature  which  must  be  disposed  of  in  the  three  ways.  For  example, 
if  the  must  has  24  per  cent  of  sugar,  there  are  24  X  2.34  degrees,  or  56°  F. 
to  be  disposed  of.  If  the  grapes  on  crushing  have  a  temperature  of 
70°  F.,  and  we  are  to  allow  the  fermentation  to  reach  a  maximum  of 
92°  F.,  they  will  take  up  92  —  70,  or  22°  F.  This  leaves  34°  F.  to  be 
removed  by  radiation  and  cooling.  Experiments  have  shown  that  in 
the  more  usual  methods  of  fermenting  red  grapes  in  California,  about 
half  of  the  heat  generated  by  fermentation  will  be  lost  by  radiation. 
Thus,  56 -s- 2,  or  28°  F.,  will  escape  in  this  way.  This  leaves  34  —  28, 
or  6°  F.,  to  be  removed  by  the  cooling  machine,  if  we  desire  the  fermen- 
tation not  to  exceed  a  temperature  of  92°  F.  To  keep  it  below  90°  F. 
we  should  have  to  remove  8°  F.,  while  if  we  are  to  allow  it  to  reach 
98°  F.  no  cooling  at  all  will  be  necessary. 


TABLE  VII. 


Removal  of  Heat  by  Radiation  and  by  Cooling. 


Experiment. 

First 
Temp. 

Max. 
Temp. 

Last 
Temp. 

i 
Sugar 
Fer- 
mented 

Degrees 
F.  Gen- 
erated. 

Degrees  F. 
Removed 
by  Cooler. 

Degrees  F. 

Lost  by 
Radiation. 

Number 

Days  in 

Vat. 

No.  1 

84 
71 

74 
81 

84 

96 

96 
98 
98 
92 

93 
94 
90 
92 

79 

21 
19 
17 
17 
24 

49 
44 
40 

40 
57 

20 
6 
6 
0 

27 

20  =  41% 
15  =  34% 

18  =  45% 
29  =  73% 
35  =  61% 

Mean  =  51% 

4 

No.  2 

3 

No.  3 

No.  7 

No.  9 ■_.:.. 

6 
4 
3 

Table  VII  shows  the  amount  of  heat  removed  by  radiation  in  five  of 
the  experimental  fermentations  made  at  Fresno.  The  amounts  vary 
considerably — from  34  to  73  per  cent.  The  cause  of  this  is  that  the 
fermentations  were  experimental  and  conducted  in  various  ways. 
The  average  of  all  is,  however,  51  per  cent,  or  about  half. 

Calculations  based  on  the  series  of  fermentations  described  in  Bulle- 
tin No.  159  show  much  less  variation,  the  following  losses  of  heat  in 
twelve  fermentations  being  found:  53,  67,  48,  55,  55,  50,  53,  48,  59,  56, 
55,  50  per  cent,  being  on  the  average  54  per  cent.  These  fermentations 
were  conducted  in  the  ordinary  way,  in  open  vats  holding  about  4,000 
gallons. 


A  NEW   WINE-COOLING   MACHINE. 


19 


The  amount  of  heat  lost  by  radiation  will  depend  on  the  outside  tem- 
perature surrounding  the  vat,  the  size  and  shape  of  the  vat,  and  the 
amount  of  stirring  and  pumping-over  that  is  practiced.  For  the  pur- 
poses of  our  calculations  it  may  be  taken  that  in  ordinary  open  fer- 
menting vats  not  exceeding  3,000  gallons  capacity  the  loss  will  be  50 
per  cent,  except  in  the  hottest  weather.  In  larger  vats  up  to  10,000 
gallons  capacity,  and  in  very  hot  weather,  the  loss  may  be  no  more 
than  33  per  cent. 

Using  these  figures  we  may  calculate  the  amount  of  cooling  necessary, 
as  follows: 

Let— 

S  =  Sugar  (%  Balling)  contained  in  the  must. 

T  =  Temperature  of  contents  of  vat. 

M  =  The  maximum  temperature  desired. 

C  =  The  number  of  degrees  necessary  to  remove  by  cooling. 


Then, 


C  =  1.17  S  +  T  -  M. 


Example: 

8  =  24%;  T  =  80°F.;  M  =  92°  F. 

Then, 

C  =  (1.17X24)  +  80  -92  =  16. 

In  this  case,  therefore,  it  would  be  necessary  to  remove  the  equivalent 
of  16°  F.  from  every  gallon  of  fermenting  grapes  in  the  vat. 

This  formula  may  be  used  at  any  time,  but  it  is  best  to  wait  until 
the  temperature  of  the  fermenting  vat  nearly  reaches  the  desired  max- 
imum before  making  the  calculation  and  before  commencing  the  cooling. 

The  calculation  is  less  liable  to  error  at  this  time,  because  the  grapes 
and  must  have  already  taken  up  all  the  heat  they  can  without  surpass- 
ing the  maximum  chosen,  and  the  contents  of  the  vat  have  become  more 
thoroughly  mixed  so  that  our  test  of  the  sugar-contents  is  more  likely 
to  properly  represent  the  whole  vat. 

The  following  table  shows  some  examples  of  the  results  we  would  get 
by  making  these  calculations: 


TABLE  VIII. 


T  =  Temperature 
of  Must. 

C  =  Cooling  Necessary  for  a  Maximum  (M)  of — 

S  =  Sugar. 

90° 

93° 

96° 

24% 

24 

22 

22 

22 

70° 

80 

60 

70 

80 

8° 

.      18 

0 

6 

16 

5° 
15 

0 

3 
13 

2° 
12 

0 

0 
10 

This  represents  such  calculations  as  might  be  made  as  soon  as  the 
vats  are  filled.  If  we  wait  until  the  maximum  temperature  is  reached 
we  would  get  such  results  as  the  following: 


20 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA — EXFERIMP:NT  STATION. 


TABLE   IX. 


T  =  Tern  pe  ra  t  u  re 
of  Must. 

C  =  Cooling  Necessary  for  a  Maximum  (M)  of 

S  =  Sugar. 

90° 

93° 

96° 

10% 

10 
10 

6 

6 

6 

90° 

93 

95 

90 

93 

95 

12° 

H 

I 

9° 
12 

~4 

7 

0° 
9 
11 
1 
4 
5 

It  is  highly  desirable  that  we  postpone  the  use  of  the  cooler  until  the 
vat  has  very  nearly  reached  the  maximum  temperature  desired,  for  it  is 
only  in  this  way  that  we  can  obtain  the  maximum  efficiency  for  our 
machine. 

When  we  have  thus  found  C*,  the  number  of  degrees  which  the 
whole  contents  of  the  vat  must  be  lowered,  we  can  easily  determine 
how  much  the  cooler  should  be  used.  If  10,000  gallons  are  to  be  cooled 
5  degrees,  it  does  not  matter  whether  we  pass  10,000  gallons  through 
the  cooler  taking  5°  F.  from  every  gallon  passed,  or  whether  we  simply 
pass  5,000  gallons  taking  10°  F.  If  the  contents  of  the  vat  are  thor- 
oughly mixed,  as  they  will  be  during  the  operation,  the  final  effect  will 
be  the  same,  namely,  the  reduction  of  the  temperature  of  the  whole  5°  F. 

For  every  machine  there  will  be  a  certain  rate  of  pumping  and  a 
certain  amount  of  lowering  of  the  temperature  corresponding  to  the 
greatest  efficiency  of  the  machine.  This  rate  and  this  degree  of  cooling 
must  be  determined  for  each  machine,  and  will  depend  principally  on 
the  size  of  the  machine  and  the  temperature  of  the  water.  In  the 
machine  used  at  Fresno,  they  were  1,000  gallons  per  hour  and  a  reduc- 
tion of  15°  F.  To  determine  the  time,  therefore,  during  which  we  must 
use  the  cooler  on  a  certain  vat,  we  first  determine  C  as  above  and  then 
make  use  of  the  following  formula: 


H  = 


GXC 

RXF 


Where 


H  =  The  number  of  hours  the  cooler  must  be  used. 

G  =  The  number  of  gallons  of  grapes  in  the  vat. 

C  =  The  number  of  degrees  F.  which  the  whole  vat  must  be  lowered. 

li  =  The  number  of  gallons  per  hour  passed  through  the  cooler. 

F  =  The  number  of  degrees  lost  by  the  wine  passing  through  the  cooler. 

For  example,  let 

G  =  2500;  C  =  10;  R  =  1000;  F  =  15. 

Then, 

„     2500  X  10     ,  _        n  m      .      , 

ii=—^-r—- -—  =  1.67,  or  1  hour  40  minutes. 
IOliO  X  15 


*C  can  be  found  without  calculation  by  referring  to  Tables  XIII  and  XIV  at  the  end 
of  this  bulletin. 


A   NEW   WINE-COOLING    MACHINE. 


21 


In  order  to  use  the  cooler  effectively,  it  is  necessary  to  watch  closely 
the  rise  of  temperature  and  disappearance  of  sugar,  as  is  done  in  every 
well-conducted  cellar.  These  observations  should  be  made  at  least 
twice  a  day,  and  oftener  when  the  temperature  approaches  the  critical 
point.  From  these  observations  some  such  table  as  those  shown  below 
should  be  constructed.  This  will  enable  us  to  start  the  cooling  at  the 
right  moment,  and  in  a  few  seconds  to  calculate  the  amount  of  cooling 
necessary. 

TABLE  X. 

Examples  of  Control  of  Temperature  with  Cooler. 

I,     Vats  1000-3000  gallons.     Moderate  weather.     Quick  fermentation.     Heat  radiated , 

one  half  of  that  generated  by  fermentation. 


Sugar 
Lost. 


Heat 
Generated. 


Heat  Lost 
by  Radia- 
tion, etc. 


Tempera- 
ture of  Vat. 


Degrees 
Removed 
from  Vat. 


At  crushing 

At  1  day 

At  2  days  _ . . 
At  2£  days  .. 
At  3  days ... 
At  4  days  .  __ 


24%B 

21 
15 
12 

5 

0 


3%B 

6 

3 

7 

5 


7.02° F 
14.04 

7.02 
16.38 
11.70 


3.02°F 

7.04 

4.02 

8.38 
5.70 


803F 

84 

91 

94 

(81) 

89 

95 


13°  F 


II.     Vats  1000-3000  gallons.     Moderate  weather.     Slower  fermentation. 

Heat  lost,  one  half. 


At  crushing 


At  1  day  . 
At  2  days 
At  3  days 
At  4  days 
At  5  days 


24%  B 

22 

17 

8 

2 

0 


2%B 


4.68° F 
11.70 
21.06 
14.04 

4.68 


1.68°F 
5.70 
11.06 
7.04 

2.68 


70°  F 

73 

79 

89 

(81) 

88 

90 


8°F 


III.     Vats  5000-10,000  gallons.     Or  warm  weather.     Heat  lost,  one  third. 


At  crushing 

At  1  day 

At  2  days... 
At  3  days ... 
At  4  days  _.. 


24%B 

21 

15 

5 

0 


6 

10 

5 


7.02° 

F 

14.04 

23.40 

11.70 

2.02°F 
4.04 
8.40 
3.70 


80°  F 
85 

95 
(80) 

95 
(87) 

95 


15°  F 
8°F 


Example  I  represents  a  fermentation  of  grapes  containing  24  per 
cent  of  sugar  which  were  crushed  warm  (80°  F.),  and  of  which  the 
maximum  temperature  attained  during  fermentation  was  95°  F.     The 


22  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

cooling   necessary  for  2,500   gallons  of    fermenting  grapes,  with    our 
machine,  is  found  by  using  the  formula  given  on  page  20: 

„     2500X13  '.  _      .v    , 

il  =  -.,^  w  ,,-=2.17,  or  2  hours  10  minutes. 
1000  X  15 

In  example  II  the  grapes  were  cooler  when  crushed  and  the  tempera- 
ture was  not  allowed  to  exceed  90°  P.     The  cooler  was  used  as  follows: 

H  =  , -.^  w  .,    =1.34,  or  1  hour  20  minutes. 
1000  X  15 

In  example  III  it  is  supposed  that  on  account  of  hot  weather  and 

large  vats  the  loss  by  radiation  was  only  one  third  of  the  heat  generated 

by  fermentation.     In  this  case,  C,  the  number  of  degrees  which  it  is 

necessary  to  lower  the  whole  vat,  is  found  by  modifying  the  formula  on 

page  19: 

C  =  1.56S  +  T-M. 

In  this  case,  if  we  are  dealing  with  a  vat  containing  9,000  gallons  of 
crushed  grapes,  the  time  our  cooler  would  have  to  be  used  is  as  follows: 

„     9000  X  23  .  . 

"■  =  Vrtr>r>  w  t -  =  13.8,  or  13  hours  50  minutes; 
1000  X  lo 

or,  as  represented  in  the  table,  one  cooling  of  9  hours  one  day  and 
another  of 

„     9000  X    8      .  _  .  ,  _.      .      , 

H=  =4.8,  or  4  hours  50  minutes 

lOtlt)  X  15 

the  next. 

It  is  not  necessary  that  the  temperature  of  the  vat  after  cooling 
should  be  as  low  as  is  indicated  by  the  figures  in  parentheses  in  the  last 
column  but  one  of  Table  X.  These  figures  simply  represent  the 
temperature  which  would  be  necessary  if  the  cooling  were  instanta- 
neous. As  the  cooling  takes  time,  heat  is  being  generated  by  the 
fermentation  at  the  same  time  that  the  cooler  is  removing  heat.  The 
final  temperature  of  the  vat,  therefore,  after  the  cooling,  will  be  higher 
than  that  represented  by  the  figures  in  parentheses.  The  difference 
will  be  very  slight  in  the  case  of  small  vats,  which  are  cooled  quickly, 
but  considerable  in  the  case  of  large  vats.  In  a  10,000-gallon  vat. 
under  the  conditions  represented  in  example  III,  during  the  first  cool- 
ing of  9  hours,  15°  F.  would  be  removed  by  the  cooler,  but  at  the  same 
time  about  4°  F.  would  be  added  by  fermentation,  so  that  when  the 
cooling  was  finished  the  temperature  of  the  vat  would  not  be  80°  F., 
but  84°  F. 

This  does  not  mean  that  the  cooling  has  not  been  so  effective  as  the 
calculation  indicated.  The  production  of  heat  has  been  accompanied 
by  a  diminution  of  sugar,  and  the  possibility  of  a  rise  of  temperature 


A   NEW   WINE-COOLING   MACHINE. 


23 


in  so  far  diminished.  The  effective  cooling  therefore  has  been  15°  F., 
as  shown  by  calculation.  This  shows  the  need  of  making  these  calcu- 
lations, for  it  is  impossible  to  tell  simply  by  testing  the  temperature  of 
the  vat  when  sufficent  cooling  has  been  effected. 

Cooling  White  Wine. — It  is  much  more  rare  to  find  white  wines  fail- 
ing to  ferment  out  dry  than  red.  The  reason  for  this  is  that,  they 
much  more  rarely  attain  high  temperatures  during  fermentation. 
There  are  several  causes  for  this.  In  the  first  place  the  absence  of  a 
cap  of  pomace  permits  the  heat  to  radiate  off  more  freely;  and  in  the 
second  place,  white  wines  are  usually  fermented  in  smaller  casks  or 
vats,  which  is  also  an  aid  to  heat  radiation;  and  finally,  white  musts 
are  usually  sulfured,  which  makes  the  fermentation  slower,  and  this 
gives  the  heat  generated  more  time  to  escape. 

This  is  well  shown  by  the  record  of  two  fermentations  in  puncheons 
of  white  wine  made  this  vear  at  Fresno: 


TABLE  XI. 
Loss  of  Heat  by  Radiation  in  Puncheons  of  Fermenting  White  Wine. 


Sugar. 


Experiment  VI. 


At  crushing 

At  1  day 

At  2  days  ... 
At  3  days  . .. 
At  4  days  .  - . 
At  5  days  ... 


Total  loss  of  heat  by  radiation 

Experiment  Via. 

At  crushing 

At  1  day 

At  2  days , 

At  3  days 

At  4  days 


22.5%B. 
16.7 

9.1 

4.7 

2.8 

2.0 


Temperature 
Observed. 


Total  loss  of  heat  by  radiation 


78° 

85 

88 

88 

88 

87 


F. 


25.0%B. 

78° 

17.0 

88 

8.7 

92 

59 

89 

4.4 

87 

Heat 
Generated. 


13.5° 

17.8 

10.3 

4.5 

2.0 


P 


18.5° 

19.5 

6.5 

3.5 


F. 


Loss  by 
Radiation. 


48% 

84 
100 
100 
150 


81% 


46% 

80 
146 
157 


80% 


In  the  first  of  these  cases  enough  of  the  heat  generated  by  the  fer- 
mentation of  20.5%  B.  of  sugar  was  lost  by  radiation  to  prevent  the 
temperature  of  the  wine  rising  above  88°  F. 

In  the  second  case,  the  fermentation  started  more  rapidly  during  the 
first  day,  and  although  the  total  heat  lost  during  four  days  was  practi- 
cally the  same  as  in  the  first  case,  there  was  more  generated  the  first 
day,  which  shows  itself  in  the  rise  to  88°  F.  instead  of  to  85°  F.,  as  in 
the  first  case.  This  rapid  start  caused  the  maximum  temperature  to 
be  3  degrees  higher,  e.  g.  92°  F. 


24 


UNIVERSITY  OF1  CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


This  exemplifies  the  danger  of  starting  the  fermentation  too  rapidly 
by  adding  too  large  a  quantity  of  yeast  or  starter. 

When  the  maximum  temperature  is  reached,  as  much  or  more  heat 
is  lost  by  radiation  as  is  generated  by  fermentation.  In  a  properly 
conducted  fermentation  of  red  wine  this  does  not  usually  occur  until 
the  wine  is  nearly  dry.  With  white  wine  in  small  casks,  owing  to  the 
much  greater  loss  of  heat,  this  usually  occurs  when  the  wine  still  con- 
tains 4  or  5  per  cent  of  sugar.  In  cold  seasons  and  localities  the  fall  of 
temperature  may  be  so  rapid  as  to  check  the  fermentation. 

While  a  cooling  machine  is  rarely  needed  for  white  wines  when  fer- 
mented in  small  casks,  it  is  quite  otherwise  when  the  fermentation 
takes  place  in  large  casks  or  vats.  This  is  exemplified  by  the  record  of 
a  1,600-gallon  cask  of  Burger  made  at  Fresno  this  year. 


TABLE  XII. 
Loss  of  Heat  by  Radiation  and  Cooling  in  a  1,600-gallon  Cask  of  Fermenting  White  Wine. 


Experiment  VIII. 


At  crushinj 
At  1  day... 


At  2  days. 
At  3  days 


Sugar 


21.5%B. 
7.0 

2.1 
1.0 


Temperature 
Observed. 


80°  F. 
90 
Cooled  to  80° F. 
86 
89 


Heat        'Heat  Lost  by 
Generated.     Radiation. 


34.0  °F. 

11.5 

2.5 


70% 
43% 


Heat  lost  by  radiation 60% 

Heat  lost  by  cooling 21% 


Total 81% 

i' 

In  this  case  the  heat  lost  by  radiation,  60  per  cent,  is  little  more  than 
in  the  red  wine  fermentation.  If  the  wine  had  not  been  cooled  when  it 
reached  90°  F.,  it  would  have  risen  to  95°  or  96°  F.  The  heat  lost  by 
radiation  and  removed  by  cooling  in  the  1,600-gallon  cask  were,  together, 
capable  of  keeping  the  maximum  only  as  low  as  it  was  kept  in  the  180- 
gallon  puncheons  by  radiation  alone. 


A   NEW    WINE-COOLING    MACHINE. 


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Hvons=s~ 


A   NEW   WINE-COOLING   MACHINE.  27 

Notes  on  the  Use  of  Tables  XIII  and  XIV. — To  use  these  tables  we 
must  first  determine,  the  temperature  and  degrees  Balling  of  the  must 
in  the  vat.  Then  by  following  the  horizontal  line  opposite  the  number 
representing  the  degrees  Balling  until  it  intersects  the  vertical  line 
running  from  the  number  representing  the  temperature  we  find  a  num- 
ber which  shows  the  number  of  degrees  F.  which  the  contents  of  the 
vat  must  be  lowered.  This  number  we  call  C.  Then  by  using  the 
formula  given  on  page  20  we  find  how  long  the  cooler  should  be  used 
in  the  vat.  This  formula  and  one  of  the  above  tables  are  all  that  are 
necessary  for  the  effective  and  economical  working  of  the  machine. 
For  example: 

Grapes  at  20  per  cent  Bal.  if  crushed  at  64°  F.  will  not  rise  above 
90c  F.,  and  therefore  need  no  cooling.  Grapes  with  the  same  amount 
of  sugar  but  crushed  at  79°  F.  must  be  cooled  12°  F.  when  they  reach 
90°  F.,  or  before,  or  they  will  reach  a  temperature  of  over  100°  F.  By 
referring  to  the  90°  column  we  find  the  number  12  in  the  row  repre- 
senting 10  per  cent  of  sugar.  This  shows  that  the  fermenting  must  will 
reach  90°  F.  when  it  still  has  10  per  cent  of  sugar,  and  as  indicated  in 
that  line  requires  to  be  cooled  12°  F.,  as  already  determined. 

This  shows  that  we  can  tell  the  amount  of  cooling  necessary  from  the 
temperature  and  sugar  tests  at  any  time,  either  when  the  grapes  are 
first  crushed  or  when  they  are  fermenting.  The  later  the  determination 
is  made  the  less  liable  to  error  it  will  be.  Any  calculation  made  before 
fermentation  will  be  only  approximate,  but  made  when  the  temperature 
is  near  the  maximum  it  will  be  quite  exact  enough. 


STATION  PUBLICATIONS  AVAILABLE  FOR  DISTRIBUTION. 


REPORTS. 


1890.     Report    of    the    Viticultural    Work    during    the   seasons    1887-93,    with    data 
regarding  the  Vintages  of  1894-95. 

1897.  Resistant   Vines,    their    Selection,   Adaptation,    and    Grafting.      Appendix    to 

Viticultural  Report  for  189G. 

1898.  Partial  Report  of  Work  of  Agricultural   Experiment   Station   for   the  years 

1895-90  and   189G-97. 
1900.     Report  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  for  the  year  1897-98. 

1902.  Report  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  for  1898-1901. 

1903.  Report  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  for  1901-1903. 

1904.  Twenty-second  Report  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  for  1903-1904. 

BULLETINS. 

Reprint.  Endurance  of  Drought  in  Soils  of  the  Arid  Region. 

No.  128.  Nature,  Value,  and  Utilization  of  Alkali  Lands,  and  Tolerance  of  Alkali. 
(Revised  and  Reprint,  1905.) 

131.  The  Phylloxera  of  the  Vine. 

133.  Tolerance  of  Alkali  by  Various  Cultures. 

135.  The  Potato- Worm  in  California. 

137.  Pickling  Ripe  and  Green  Olives. 

138.  Citrus  Fruit  Culture. 

139.  Orange  and  Lemon  Rot.  . 

140.  Lands  of  the  Colorado  Delta  in  Salton  Basin,  and  Supplement. 

141.  Deciduous  Fruits  at  Paso  Robles. 

142.  Grasshoppers    in    California. 

143.  California  Peach-Tree  Borer. 

144.  The  Peach-Worm. 

145.  The  Red  Spider  of  Citrus  Trees. 

14G.  New   Methods   of   Grafting   and   Budding   Vines. 

147.  Culture  Work  of  the  Substations. 

148.  Resistant    Vines    and    their    Hybrids. 

149.  California  Sugar  Industry. 

150.  The  Value  of  Oak  Leaves  for  Forage. 

151.  Arsenical  Insecticides. 

152.  Fumigation  Dosage. 

153.  Spraying  with  Distillates. 

154.  Sulfur  Sprays  for  Red  Spider. 

155.  Directions  for  Spraying  for  the  Codling-Moth. 

156.  Fowl  Cholera. 

157.  Commercial  Fertilizers. 

158.  California  Olive  Oil ;   its  Manufacture. 

159.  Contribution  to  the  Study  of  Fermentation. 

160.  The  Hop  Aphis. 

161.  Tuberculosis  in  Fowls.      (Reprint.) 

162.  Commercial  Fertilizers.     (Dec.  1,  1904.) 

163.  Pear  Scab. 

164.  Poultry  Feeding  and  Proprietary  Foods.      (Reprint.) 

165.  Asparagus  and  Asparagus  Rust  in  California. 

166.  Spraying  for  Scale  Insects. 

167.  Manufacture  of  Dry  Wines  in  Hot  Countries. 

168.  Observations  on  Some  Vine  Diseases  in  Sonoma  County. 

169.  Tolerance  of  the  Sugar  Beet  for  Alkali. 

170.  Studies  in  Grasshopper  Control. 

171.  Commercial  Fertilizers.      (June  30,  1905.) 

172.  Further  Experience  in  Asparagus  Rust  Control. 

173.  Commercial  Fertilizers.      (December,  1905.) 

CIRCULARS. 

No.  1.  Texas  Fever.  No.   13.     The  Culture  of  the  Sugar  Beet. 

2.  Blackleg.  14.     Practical    Suggestions    for   Cod- 

3.  Hog  Cholera.  ling-Moth      Control      in      the 

4.  Anthrax.  Pajaro  Valley. 

5.  Contagious  Abortion  in  Cows.  15.  Recent  Problems  in  Agriculture. 
7.  Remedies  for  Insects.  What  a  University  Farm  is 
9.  Asparagus  Rust.  For. 

10.  Reading   Course   in    Economic  16.     Notes  on  Seed-Wheat. 

Entomology.  17.     Why     Agriculture     Should     be 

11.  Fumigation  Practice.  Taught  in  the  Public  Schools. 

12.  Silk  Culture. 

Copies  may  be  had  by  application  to  the  Director  of  the  Experiment 
Station,  Berkeley,  California. 


